INTRODUCTION

17.1 China is one of the countries in the world which suffers most seriously from natural disasters. Over the past forty years, economic losses directly in seven major types of disasters (climatic, maritime, floods, earthquakes, geological, agricultural and forest) amounted to 3-5% of the annual gross national product, with death tolls averaging tens of thousands each year. Economic development, population growth, and ecological degradation, especially in high risk areas where there is high population density and intensive production, have led to an escalation in the frequency, extent of effect and degree of risks of natural disasters. In some regions, these factors are seriously hampering long-term efforts to eradicate poverty.

17.2 The frequent occurrence and severity of natural disasters in China are related to its geography and to the state of socio-economic development in the country. China's mainland is bounded by the Pacific Ocean to the east, the largest source of typhoons in the world. The Tibetan Plateau, the highest in the world, lies to the west. The complicated interaction of the continental and marine climatic systems result in extremely changeable weather conditions, which frequently cause various types of meteorological and maritime disasters. Topographically high in the west and low in the east, and with an uneven distribution of precipitation both in time and space, China is prone to floods and droughts on extensive scales. Furthermore, China is located between the Pan-Pacific and the Eurasian seismic belts, making it a region with violent crustal movements and the largest number of land earthquakes in the world. More than 70% of large cities, housing over half of the total population, and more than 75% of agricultural and industrial production are distributed over the coastal regions, eastern plains and mountainous regions, which are mostly subject to climatic hazards, maritime hazards, floods, and earthquakes. Consequently, losses from disasters are high. Climatic and ecological conditions in China breed and propagate many kinds of plant diseases and plagues of insects, mice and weeds. The seriousness of these biological hazards has been growing following recent climatic warming and increases in environmental pollution. The degree of risk in various disasters also has been increasing with current large-scale development activities.

17.3 The Chinese people have much experience from their long struggle against natural disasters and have drawn up a series of general and specific policies such as, "put prevention first, and combine prevention with control" and "combine prevention with relief." In the early years of the 1950s, large- scale works to control rivers and watercourses were launched; flood control, tidal protection, drainage and irrigation systems were built to bring the frequent floods and droughts under control. In the mid- 1970s, after the great Tangshan earthquake, leadership and organization for preparedness against and monitoring of earthquakes were strengthened. Since the 1980s, attention has been focused upon drafting and improving laws, planning for protection from and mitigation of disasters and for improving organization for dealing with natural disasters. Due to long and arduous efforts, a multi-disciplinary contingent of scientific and technical personnel, with adequate practical experience, was assembled in China to deal with natural disasters. A network of stations to monitor natural disasters has begun to take shape and a large amount of important scientific data has been collected. Some understanding regarding the pattern for development of natural disasters has been gained. Experience in predicting and forecasting disasters and a number of valuable scientific achievements which meet advanced international standards, have led to the successful forecasting of some of China's major natural disasters. Progress has been made in design and construction techniques for protection against disasters. All of these provide an important basis for further work in protection against disasters, in mitigating their effects and for international cooperation.

17.4 The 1990s have been proclaimed the International Decade of Natural Disaster Reduction. Due to increased population pressures, China is not in a position to adopt policies similar to those of other countries, with low population densities and where development in areas of high risk is strictly limited. China is also unable to provide large sums for investment over the short term to reduce the degree of risk. In view of the basic features of natural disasters in China and the need to maintain sustainable socio-economic development, the general objectives of promoting protection from and mitigation of effects of disasters are:

(a) To establish a system for natural disaster prevention and control, which is compatible with the level of socio-economic development and which integrates engineering technology with legal, administrative, economic, managerial and educational means to provide a safeguard for social stability and the sustainable development of the economy;

(b) To promote scientific research into natural disasters with a view towards better understanding the pattern of breeding, occurrence, development, evolution and distribution in time and space, of various natural disasters. To apply this research through the use of modern technology for establishing mechanisms for disaster mitigation in accordance with local conditions;

(c) In the event of a major disaster, to make efforts to reduce losses, minimize its effects, avoid catastrophic consequences resulting from irrational development activities, protect fragile living conditions and increase the capacity of society as a whole to withstand natural disasters.

17.5 This chapter is concerned with protection from and control of the natural disasters that have the most serious effect on socio-economic development in China, namely, floods, drought, earthquakes, typhoons, tidal waves, landslides, mud-rock flows and infestations of plagues of plant diseases, insects and mice. It is also concerned with problems of reducing natural disasters caused or aggravated by human activities. Problems of environmental pollution caused primarily by human factors and man-made disruption of natural resources and the natural environment are addressed in other chapters.

17.6 The following program areas are included in this chapter:

PROGRAM AREAS

A. Improving Natural Disaster Management

Basis for action

17.7 Disaster management involves a combination of activities, including legislation, planning, organization, coordination, intervention and engineering, which are carried out by the government, appropriate agencies and social organizations for the prevention and mitigation of disaster. This is at the core of the disaster mitigation system, and permeates all actions associated with it.

17.8 Three aspects need to be considered when a disaster occurs: its origin, the vehicle and the victims, including both natural and human factors. Dealing with natural disasters requires scientific planning and the coordination of human activities to eliminate, lessen or avoid the origin of the disaster; to regulate, control or divert the vehicle; to protect displaced victims and to increase victims' capacity to withstand the disaster.

17.9 Natural disaster management will be enhanced with the establishment of this management system. The present system in China for the prevention and mitigation of disasters was established while the country was still under-developed and had a low level of technology. In comparison with developed countries, the level of overall management for natural disasters is at a low level. Legislation for disaster management is weak and the country is in need of overall planning for protection against disasters. Well- established disaster management systems, working regimes and mechanisms for coordinating disaster relief all need to be strengthened.

Objectives

17.10 The objectives of this program include:

(a) Improving legislation, institutions, regulations and planning for disaster management, in terms of enhancing its scientific basis, authority and feasibility;

(b) Strengthening coordinating, supervising, rewarding, penalizing and educational measures for disaster management in order to improve the disaster management system;

(c) Reorganizing disaster management from the current system of management by different regions, departments and disciplines working in isolation, to an integrated, systematic, and coordinated management system;

(d) Increasing the capacity for the coordination of the development of society and of disaster mitigation.

Activities

17.11 The establishment of legal systems and improvements to the management systems in disaster mitigation plans will be enhanced by:

(a) Formulating basic laws for the management of disasters, laws on the management of primary disasters such as floods and earthquakes, other supplementary regulations, local legislation on disaster relief, plus concomitant strengthening of law enforcement;

(b) Developing a national comprehensive disaster mitigation plan, which will be integrated into the national master plan for socio-economic development;

(c) Within the framework of the national comprehensive disaster relief plan, appropriate departments and governments at all levels should develop practical disaster relief plans through a process of re-examining, amending, upgrading and improving existing plans;

(d) Preparing emergency action plans for governments at all levels to guide emergency responses and to coordinate actions by government, appropriate departments, industries and citizens in the event of major disasters.

17.12 Additional activities will focus on building the institutional framework for disaster management. Through long experience with disaster mitigation, an organizational system exists in China, which is composed of governmental organs in charge of disaster management, auxiliary relief departments, disaster relief decision-making headquarters and temporary coordinating bodies. In areas severely stricken by disasters, the leading administrator is responsible at every level and a system of post responsibility is exercised by all departments concerned. This system divides the work and coordinates departmental efforts, under the leadership of the disaster relief decision-making headquarters. From the point of view of comprehensive disaster management, the institutional framework needs to be strengthened in the following areas:

(a) Strengthening the functions of coordinating bodies. Permanent administrative offices, as well as reliable disaster information management bodies and specialist teams undertaking research on the macro-management of disasters, will be established under the coordination of governmental organs. River basin authorities responsible for the overall planning of flood control and the comprehensive management of basins of important rivers, shall have the authority to enforce legislation. The central government's support to river basin authorities and its direct participation in management shall be strengthened in order to coordinate and resolve conflicts between local administrative regions on matters concerning river basin management;

(b) Improving law enforcement and supervisory functions of government authorities;

(c) Devising training programs for chief administrators in order to improve the management of disasters. Establishing guidelines for training courses to be offered regularly in future years;

(d) Improving organizational and management systems for disaster investigations, assessments and the collection of statistics.

17.13 Scientific research on the management of natural disaster should be enhanced. The main activities should be:

(a) Conducting natural disaster risk analyses throughout the country, to include risk identification, hazard assessment and risk evaluation. At present, there is an urgent need for the comprehensive analysis of risks for natural disasters occurring in important economic development zones and in cities. Reasonable standards for protection against disasters in urban areas should be set. Formulation of disaster protection plans based on scientific principles and improving implementation procedures for establishing disaster protection systems should be carried out;

(b) There is a need for in-depth research to aid in determining zones of natural disaster risk based on the spatial distribution, range of influence, extent of effect and degree of risk of different categories of disaster. This research should consider differences in levels of economic and social development and then determine regional disaster mitigation measures and implementation policies. Results of this research can then be used to organize and coordinate disaster mitigation activities amongst administrative areas and make rational adjustments to land utilization and patterns of economic development;

(c) Strengthening research on the investigation and assessment of losses in natural disasters and formulating standards for assessment of losses in natural disasters.

17.14 Strengthening research on natural disaster information processing techniques and information management will be accomplished by:

(a) Establishing a "National Disaster Information Management Center," to promote the exchange of disaster information amongst departments and regions and to improve the management of information;

(b) Developing, in a planned way, different levels of natural disaster databases in the "National Disaster Information Management Center," and in appropriate departments, regions, research institutes or universities;

(c) Compiling statistical data on natural disasters and reports of annual progress on the development of the system of laws, on scientific and technical research and on the implementation of countermeasures in China, to be published as a yearbook or in other appropriate forms.

17.15 International and inter-regional cooperation and coordination shall be promoted through a number of activities, including:

(a) Promoting the exchange of scientific knowledge by organizing seminars or workshops on the management of disasters. Organizing manpower for the translation, sorting and study of literature on disaster management from various countries, in order to draw useful lessons from international experience. Organizing study tours to other counties as required;

(b) Preparing regulations for the management of disasters related to the oceans, the atmosphere and international rivers, in accord with current international practices;

(c) Promoting association with and exchange of information with international organizations involved in the management of natural disasters.

17.16 Promoting publicity campaigns and educational activities to raise public awareness of disaster prevention and mitigation measures.

B. Promoting the Establishment of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Systems, Reducing Losses Caused by Natural Disasters

Basis for action

17.17 Disaster prevention and mitigation systems are composed of organizations for disaster management, prevention, control and relief, as well as technical facilities for protection against disasters. These include facilities for research, monitoring, information processing, forecasting, early warning, control, combating, relief and post-disaster rehabilitation. These systems have been established to eliminate or mitigate hazards to life and property brought about by natural disasters, to enhance capacities to combat and withstand disaster and to regain order in the shortest time possible after a disaster. These systems are safeguards, indispensable to sustainable socio-economic development.

17.18 Since the 1980s, not only have total losses from disasters been increasing in China but the number of areas afflicted also has been increasing, which indicates that the system in place is inadequate to the needs of socio-economic development and that it must be greatly improved.

Objectives

17.19 The objectives of this program area are:

(a) To establish a disaster protection system compatible with the China's level of socio-economic development, which will enhance the overall social capacity for disaster mitigation;

(b) To promote research on the scientific bases of disasters and on protection technologies to increase the modernization level of the system for protecting against disasters;

(c) To speed up the rehabilitation of and reconstruction in afflicted areas and to eliminate the adverse effects of disasters as quickly as possible.

Activities

17.20 Enhance the overall planning, construction and management of major disaster prevention and disaster relief projects. Two issues should be addressed in this process: shifting the stress from focusing only on construction to also emphasizing management and complementary facilities; and, dealing with the problem of poor maintenance in aging facilities, which means that they cannot be used at the critical times. Through legislation, establish the proportional shares of investment for disaster prevention and relief projects to be provided by central and local governments and community bodies. Disaster prevention and relief projects should be established and later evaluated in terms of their effectiveness and their environmental impacts. These projects should have multiple benefits to communities.

17.21 There will be research on comprehensive planning for urban disaster relief and on measures for disaster mitigation in order to develop plans for the coordination of various sectors and to develop integrated disaster mitigation plans. Countermeasures should combine engineering and non-engineering elements, as appropriate to different categories of disaster and various characteristics of urban development.

17.22 Experimental zones for disaster mitigation in urban regions will be established to obtain general experience and verify technologies for disaster forecasting, monitoring and combating, as well as for their prevention, control and relief and rescue measures. The most effective techniques for disaster mitigation will be popularized.

17.23 Pressing problems related to disaster mitigation policies and on which research should be undertaken include the following:

(a) Policy research on establishing a system of disaster insurance;

(b) Policy research on establishing a funding system for disaster mitigation;

(c) Policy research on compensation measures after the use of flood diversion and containment zones.

17.24 Research on techniques for observing and monitoring natural disasters and for establishing disaster monitoring systems will emphasize the following areas:

(a) Research on equipment for earthquake observation;

(b) Research on systems for monitoring severe weather, climate and floods;

(c) Research on techniques for the dynamic monitoring of geological disasters such as rockfalls, landslides, mud-rock flows, ground subsidence and ground collapses;

(d) Research on real-time data collection systems for monitoring maritime disasters;

(e) Research on automatic data processing techniques for atmospheric monitoring.

17.25 Research on patterns of occurrence of natural disasters, on their prediction, and on forecasting techniques for the main categories of natural disasters. This research will include the following:

(a) Methods for forecasting severe weather and climatic conditions;

(b) New theories and new methods of predicting earthquakes;

(c) Prediction of maritime disasters and early warning systems;

(d) Dynamic simulation techniques and forecasting methods for outbreaks of crop and forest plant diseases and insect infestations;

(e) Prediction of future trends of geological disasters in China;

(f) Flood prediction models for rivers with wide and shallow shifting sandy channels.

17.26 Research on methodologies and techniques for disaster prevention, combating, relief and rescue will include research on the following:

(a) Improving the mix of countermeasures for the prevention of disasters;

(b) Optimal schemes for mobilizing disaster protection systems during disasters;

(c) Optimal design of inhabitants refuge systems;

(d) Protection from disaster and emergency response measures for key urban services, such as communications, water, power and sewers;

(e) Technology for the modernization of equipment for rapid disaster relief response systems;

(f) Medical and health service techniques for emergency treatment of large numbers of dead, wounded and sick persons, including the control of epidemics and the sanitary treatment of drinking water in disaster-stricken areas.

17.27 The development of information processing systems will be accelerated by:

(a) Improving communications systems;

(b) Further developing maritime disaster early warning systems to safeguard fishermen and those involved in other marine activities;

(c) Promoting the use of high technologies, such as remote sensing, in monitoring disasters and evaluating losses.

17.28 Demonstration projects for the prevention of major natural disasters and control of hazards will involve work in the following areas:

(a) Water conservancy projects on the Huaihe River and on Lake Taihu;

(b) Typhoon protection projects in Hainan;

(c) Landslide and mud-rock flow prevention and control projects in Sichuan Province;

(d) Seawater intrusion and contamination prevention and control projects in Laizhou Bay, Shandong Province, and elsewhere.

17.29 Cooperation with the international community to strengthen the development of disaster protection and mitigation systems should include:

(a) Introducing advanced equipment and technologies from abroad for the development of disaster monitoring, information processing, early warning, forecasting and communication systems, and training personnel in their use;

(b) Promoting international cooperation in demonstration projects for the comprehensive prevention and control of major natural disasters, such as introducing advanced technology and equipment and international competitive bidding;

(c) Developing regional maritime disaster joint early warning services with the West Pacific coastal countries to fully utilize the resources of China's ocean disaster early warning system and its territorial advantages to gradually build a unified service system through regional cooperation;

(d) Calling for aid from the international community after the occurrence of major disasters, in order to assist people in disaster areas to quickly reinstate production and to rebuild their homes;

(e) Conducting research through bilateral or multilateral international cooperation.

C. Reducing Natural Disasters Caused or Aggravated by Human Factors

Basis for action

17.30 The trend towards an increase in the severity of natural disasters in modern society is closely related to the impact of human activities. Deforestation and excessive exploitation of land resources are the main causes of the increased soil erosion and mountain disasters, such as landslides. The acceleration of silting in rivers and lakes has led to a reduction in their flood regulating and storage capacities, with the consequence of their being frequent recurrences of floods and droughts. Over-extraction of groundwater has led to such problems as ground subsidence, seawater intrusion, a decrease in the standard of urban flood control works and an increase in the seriousness of water logging.

17.31 Increasing population and rising property densities in high risk disaster areas are important factors contributing to the increase in losses from disasters. However, the pressures of population expansion in high-risk areas is often unavoidable in China. While economic development tends to aggravate hazards, it can also increase the capacity to prevent and combat disasters. Therefore, it is most important to coordinate the scale and mode of development with disaster protection and mitigation measures.

Objectives

17.32 Reduction of the causes and the aggravation of natural disasters from human factors will focus on the following specific targets:

(a) To predict trends in changing human activities and in the environmental damages which result. To study the evolutionary characteristics of and protective countermeasures against future natural disasters;

(b) To reduce the probable frequency in occurrences of natural disasters and to mitigate disaster hazards through changing the mode or lessening the intensity of human activities.

Activities

17.33 Promoting disaster impact evaluations for regional planning and development projects, which should include consideration of the following:

(a) Whether or not the development project results in hazardous impacts to the surrounding environment;

(b) Whether or not the environment surrounding the project site is potentially hazardous to the development project;

(c) Whether or not the design criteria, disaster withstanding capacity and safety measures in major engineering facilities are affordable and rational.

17.34 Efforts will be made to strengthen law enforcement agencies, in order to prevent and take strong measures against occurrences of unlawful activities, such as destroying forests, grasslands, lands, mining areas, and marine resources or the damaging of facilities for the monitoring of, communicating about or prevention of disasters.

17.35 Research will focus on the relationship of human activities and resulting environmental damages with various kinds of natural disasters, including:

(a) The relationship of reclaiming land from lakes with flooding, waterlogging and droughts;

(b) The relationship of clearing wasteland by deforestation and bringing grassland under cultivation with mountain disasters, floods, droughts, windstorms and sandstorms;

(c) The relationship of excessive extraction of groundwater with various kinds of natural disaster;

(d) The relationship of large project construction with various kinds of natural disasters, such as earthquakes triggered by reservoir construction.

17.36 Research will focus on the characteristics of and countermeasures to be taken to protect against future natural disasters caused by human factors, including:

(a) The countermeasures against and the evolutionary characteristics of natural disasters, such as earthquakes, fires, floods, high winds and ground subsistence caused by the three dimensional development of urban areas;

(b) The evolutionary characteristics of and protective countermeasures against plant diseases and insect pests in agriculture caused by the widespread application of pesticides;

(c) Natural disasters caused by the development of mines.

17.37 Research on the likelihood of reducing the frequency of occurrences of natural disasters and on approaches to mitigating their dangers by changing the mode and lessening the intensity of human activities.

17.38 Emphasis will be placed on cooperation with other countries to draw from their experience and guidance.